Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups

John F. Benson; David A. Keiter; Peter J. Mahoney; Benjamin L. Allen; Lee Allen; Francisco Álvares; Morgan L. Anderson; Shannon M. Barber-Meyer; Adi Barocas; James C. Beasley; Linda Behrendorff; Jerrold L. Belant; Dean E. Beyer; Luigi Boitani; Bridget L. Borg; Stan Boutin; Erin E. Boydston; Justin L. Brown; Joseph K. Bump; Jonathon D. Cepek; Michael J. Chamberlain; Yvette M. Chenaux-Ibrahim; Seth G. Cherry; Duško Ćirović; Paolo Ciucci; H. Dean Cluff; Susan M. Cooper; Kevin R. Crooks; Daniel L.J. Dupont; Robert N. Fisher; Daniel Fortin; Thomas D. Gable; Emilio García; Eli Geffen; Stanley D. Gehrt; Michael Gillingham; Douglas C. Heard; Mark Hebblewhite; Joseph W. Hinton; Austin T. Homkes; Chris G. Howden; Djuro Huber; Pat J. Jackson; Kyle Joly; Allicia Kelly; Marcella J. Kelly; Katrien A. Kingdon; Abhijeet Kulkarni; Josip Kusak; Gerald W. Kuzyk; Bryce C. Lake; Luis Llaneza; José Vicente López-Bao; Daniel R. MacNulty; Ashley A.D. McLaren; Philip D. McLoughlin; Evelyn H. Merrill; Kenneth J. Mills; Numi Mitchell; Seth A. Moore; Matthew A. Mumma; Maureen H. Murray; Marco Musiani; Mónia Nakamura; Eric W. Neilson; Lalenia M. Neufeld; Thomas M. Newsome; John K. Oakleaf; Vicente Palacios; Marlo M. Perdicas; Thomas Perry; Tyler R. Petroelje; Cyrenea B. Piper; Christina M. Prokopenko; Laura R. Prugh; Seth P.D. Riley; Helena Rio-Maior; Gretchen H. Roffler; Dale Rollins; Håkan Sand; Fiona K.A. Schmiegelow; Dale R. Seip; Mathew S. Sorum; Colleen C. St. Clair; Robin Steenweg; Michael W. Strohbach; Jack Tatler; Maria Thaker; Connor A. Thompson; Julie W. Turner; Abi T. Vanak; Eric Vander Wal; Petter Wabakken; Scott E. Walter; Sarah C. Webster; Tyler J. Wheeldon; Camilla Wikenros; Steve K. Windels; Julie K. Young; Sana Zabihi-Seissan; Barbara Zimmermann; Brent R. Patterson

doi:10.1002/ecy.4492

Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups

John F. Benson^*, David A. Keiter, Peter J. Mahoney, Benjamin L. Allen, Lee Allen, Francisco Álvares, Morgan L. Anderson, Shannon M. Barber-Meyer, Adi Barocas, James C. Beasley, Linda Behrendorff, Jerrold L. Belant, Dean E. Beyer, Luigi Boitani, Bridget L. Borg, Stan Boutin, Erin E. Boydston, Justin L. Brown, Joseph K. Bump, Jonathon D. CepekMichael J. Chamberlain, Yvette M. Chenaux-Ibrahim, Seth G. Cherry, Duško Ćirović, Paolo Ciucci, H. Dean Cluff, Susan M. Cooper, Kevin R. Crooks, Daniel L.J. Dupont, Robert N. Fisher, Daniel Fortin, Thomas D. Gable, Emilio García, Eli Geffen, Stanley D. Gehrt, Michael Gillingham, Douglas C. Heard, Mark Hebblewhite, Joseph W. Hinton, Austin T. Homkes, Chris G. Howden, Djuro Huber, Pat J. Jackson, Kyle Joly, Allicia Kelly, Marcella J. Kelly, Katrien A. Kingdon, Abhijeet Kulkarni, Josip Kusak, Gerald W. Kuzyk, Bryce C. Lake, Luis Llaneza, José Vicente López-Bao, Daniel R. MacNulty, Ashley A.D. McLaren, Philip D. McLoughlin, Evelyn H. Merrill, Kenneth J. Mills, Numi Mitchell, Seth A. Moore, Matthew A. Mumma, Maureen H. Murray, Marco Musiani, Mónia Nakamura, Eric W. Neilson, Lalenia M. Neufeld, Thomas M. Newsome, John K. Oakleaf, Vicente Palacios, Marlo M. Perdicas, Thomas Perry, Tyler R. Petroelje, Cyrenea B. Piper, Christina M. Prokopenko, Laura R. Prugh, Seth P.D. Riley, Helena Rio-Maior, Gretchen H. Roffler, Dale Rollins, Håkan Sand, Fiona K.A. Schmiegelow, Dale R. Seip, Mathew S. Sorum, Colleen C. St. Clair, Robin Steenweg, Michael W. Strohbach, Jack Tatler, Maria Thaker, Connor A. Thompson, Julie W. Turner, Abi T. Vanak, Eric Vander Wal, Petter Wabakken, Scott E. Walter, Sarah C. Webster, Tyler J. Wheeldon, Camilla Wikenros, Steve K. Windels, Julie K. Young, Sana Zabihi-Seissan, Barbara Zimmermann, Brent R. Patterson

^*Corresponding author for this work

School of Zoology

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

Abstract

Animals within social groups respond to costs and benefits of sociality by adjusting the proportion of time they spend in close proximity to other individuals in the group (cohesion). Variation in cohesion between individuals, in turn, shapes important group-level processes such as subgroup formation and fission–fusion dynamics. Although critical to animal sociality, a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing cohesion remains a gap in our knowledge of cooperative behavior in animals. We tracked 574 individuals from six species within the genus Canis in 15 countries on four continents with GPS telemetry to estimate the time that pairs of individuals within social groups spent in close proximity and test hypotheses regarding drivers of cohesion. Pairs of social canids (Canis spp.) varied widely in the proportion of time they spent together (5%–100%) during seasonal monitoring periods relative to both intrinsic characteristics and environmental conditions. The majority of our data came from three species of wolves (gray wolves, eastern wolves, and red wolves) and coyotes. For these species, cohesion within social groups was greatest between breeding pairs and varied seasonally as the nature of cooperative activities changed relative to annual life history patterns. Across species, wolves were more cohesive than coyotes. For wolves, pairs were less cohesive in larger groups, and when suitable, small prey was present reflecting the constraints of food resources and intragroup competition on social associations. Pair cohesion in wolves declined with increased anthropogenic modification of the landscape and greater climatic variability, underscoring challenges for conserving social top predators in a changing world. We show that pairwise cohesion in social groups varies strongly both within and across Canis species, as individuals respond to changing ecological context defined by resources, competition, and anthropogenic disturbance. Our work highlights that cohesion is a highly plastic component of animal sociality that holds significant promise for elucidating ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying cooperative behavior.

Original language	English
Article number	e4492
Journal	Ecology
Volume	106
Issue number	1
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4492
State	Published - Jan 2025

Funding

Funders	Funder number
Albert Ellis Institute
National Biodiversity Future Center-NBFC
Bernd Thies Foundation, UK Wolf Conservation Trust
School of Natural Resources at the University of Nebraska‐Lincoln
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
Max McGraw Wildlife Foundation
John Downer Productions Ltd.
National Geographic Society
Silverback Films Ltd.
Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources
Associação para a Conservação do Habitat do Lobo Ibérico
National Recovery and Resilience Plan
FEDER EU
US Fish and Wildlife Pittman Robertson Funds
Wildlife Conservation Society
Rolling Plains Quail Research Foundation
Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs
State of Alaska General Funds
Plimsoll Productions Ltd.
Safari Club International Michigan Involvement Committee
Natural Resources and Northern Development Manitoba
Minnesota Environment and Natural Resources Trust Fund
Washington Department of Natural Resources
Gas Research and Innovation Society
Abruzzo Lazio and Molise National Park Authority
Government of Nunavut
School of Natural Resources at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Alberta Ecotrust, Canadian Wildlife Federation
University of Georgia Research Foundation
U.S. Geological Survey
Manitoba Hydro
Indian Space Research Organisation
Croatian Environment Fund
Gulo Film Productions Ltd.
Safari Club International Foundation
European Commission
British Broadcasting Corporation
Wellcome Trust
Nevada Department of Wildlife $3 Predator Fee Program
Forest Enhancement Society of British Columbia
Parks Canada
EuroNatur Stiftung
Habitat Conservation Trust Foundation
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development
Voyaguers National Park
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Utah Division of Wildlife Resources
University of Northern British Columbia
National Park Service
Xunta de Galicia
Utah Agricultural Experiment Station
Croatian Agency for Nature and Environment
Manitoba Fish and Wildlife Fund
Nature and Parks Authority of Israel
John Prince Research Forest
USFWS Red Wolf Recovery Program
Prince Charitable Trusts
Ministerio de Asuntos Económicos y Transformación Digital, Gobierno de España	CGL2017-87528-R, RYC‐2015‐18932
National Biodiversity Future Center‐NBFC	00000033
Wellcome Trust DBT India Alliance	IA/CPHI/15/1/502028
Iviq Hunters and Trappers Association	W-147-R
National Science Foundation	DEB‐1748625, DEB‐1652420
U.S. Department of Energy	DE‐EM0005228
Alberta Environment and Parks	2038704, 1556248
Ministarstvo Prosvete, Nauke i Tehnološkog Razvoja	451‐03‐68/2022‐14/200178
Regional Government of Asturias	IDI/2021/000075
Rhode Island Department of Environmental Management	F17AF01143
Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia	14.30, SFRH/BD/144087/2019

Keywords

Canis
animal sociality
cohesion
cooperative behavior
coyotes
group size
human footprint
wolves

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10.1002/ecy.4492

Cite this

Benson, J. F., Keiter, D. A., Mahoney, P. J., Allen, B. L., Allen, L., Álvares, F., Anderson, M. L., Barber-Meyer, S. M., Barocas, A., Beasley, J. C., Behrendorff, L., Belant, J. L., Beyer, D. E., Boitani, L., Borg, B. L., Boutin, S., Boydston, E. E., Brown, J. L., Bump, J. K., ... Patterson, B. R. (2025). Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups. Ecology, 106(1), Article e4492. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4492

@article{4df35a69b21344e199f31add88271d01,

title = "Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups",

abstract = "Animals within social groups respond to costs and benefits of sociality by adjusting the proportion of time they spend in close proximity to other individuals in the group (cohesion). Variation in cohesion between individuals, in turn, shapes important group-level processes such as subgroup formation and fission–fusion dynamics. Although critical to animal sociality, a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing cohesion remains a gap in our knowledge of cooperative behavior in animals. We tracked 574 individuals from six species within the genus Canis in 15 countries on four continents with GPS telemetry to estimate the time that pairs of individuals within social groups spent in close proximity and test hypotheses regarding drivers of cohesion. Pairs of social canids (Canis spp.) varied widely in the proportion of time they spent together (5%–100%) during seasonal monitoring periods relative to both intrinsic characteristics and environmental conditions. The majority of our data came from three species of wolves (gray wolves, eastern wolves, and red wolves) and coyotes. For these species, cohesion within social groups was greatest between breeding pairs and varied seasonally as the nature of cooperative activities changed relative to annual life history patterns. Across species, wolves were more cohesive than coyotes. For wolves, pairs were less cohesive in larger groups, and when suitable, small prey was present reflecting the constraints of food resources and intragroup competition on social associations. Pair cohesion in wolves declined with increased anthropogenic modification of the landscape and greater climatic variability, underscoring challenges for conserving social top predators in a changing world. We show that pairwise cohesion in social groups varies strongly both within and across Canis species, as individuals respond to changing ecological context defined by resources, competition, and anthropogenic disturbance. Our work highlights that cohesion is a highly plastic component of animal sociality that holds significant promise for elucidating ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying cooperative behavior.",

keywords = "Canis, animal sociality, cohesion, cooperative behavior, coyotes, group size, human footprint, wolves",

author = "Benson, {John F.} and Keiter, {David A.} and Mahoney, {Peter J.} and Allen, {Benjamin L.} and Lee Allen and Francisco {\'A}lvares and Anderson, {Morgan L.} and Barber-Meyer, {Shannon M.} and Adi Barocas and Beasley, {James C.} and Linda Behrendorff and Belant, {Jerrold L.} and Beyer, {Dean E.} and Luigi Boitani and Borg, {Bridget L.} and Stan Boutin and Boydston, {Erin E.} and Brown, {Justin L.} and Bump, {Joseph K.} and Cepek, {Jonathon D.} and Chamberlain, {Michael J.} and Chenaux-Ibrahim, {Yvette M.} and Cherry, {Seth G.} and Du{\v s}ko {\'C}irovi{\'c} and Paolo Ciucci and Cluff, {H. Dean} and Cooper, {Susan M.} and Crooks, {Kevin R.} and Dupont, {Daniel L.J.} and Fisher, {Robert N.} and Daniel Fortin and Gable, {Thomas D.} and Emilio Garc{\'i}a and Eli Geffen and Gehrt, {Stanley D.} and Michael Gillingham and Heard, {Douglas C.} and Mark Hebblewhite and Hinton, {Joseph W.} and Homkes, {Austin T.} and Howden, {Chris G.} and Djuro Huber and Jackson, {Pat J.} and Kyle Joly and Allicia Kelly and Kelly, {Marcella J.} and Kingdon, {Katrien A.} and Abhijeet Kulkarni and Josip Kusak and Kuzyk, {Gerald W.} and Lake, {Bryce C.} and Luis Llaneza and L{\'o}pez-Bao, {Jos{\'e} Vicente} and MacNulty, {Daniel R.} and McLaren, {Ashley A.D.} and McLoughlin, {Philip D.} and Merrill, {Evelyn H.} and Mills, {Kenneth J.} and Numi Mitchell and Moore, {Seth A.} and Mumma, {Matthew A.} and Murray, {Maureen H.} and Marco Musiani and M{\'o}nia Nakamura and Neilson, {Eric W.} and Neufeld, {Lalenia M.} and Newsome, {Thomas M.} and Oakleaf, {John K.} and Vicente Palacios and Perdicas, {Marlo M.} and Thomas Perry and Petroelje, {Tyler R.} and Piper, {Cyrenea B.} and Prokopenko, {Christina M.} and Prugh, {Laura R.} and Riley, {Seth P.D.} and Helena Rio-Maior and Roffler, {Gretchen H.} and Dale Rollins and H{\aa}kan Sand and Schmiegelow, {Fiona K.A.} and Seip, {Dale R.} and Sorum, {Mathew S.} and {St. Clair}, {Colleen C.} and Robin Steenweg and Strohbach, {Michael W.} and Jack Tatler and Maria Thaker and Thompson, {Connor A.} and Turner, {Julie W.} and Vanak, {Abi T.} and {Vander Wal}, Eric and Petter Wabakken and Walter, {Scott E.} and Webster, {Sarah C.} and Wheeldon, {Tyler J.} and Camilla Wikenros and Windels, {Steve K.} and Young, {Julie K.} and Sana Zabihi-Seissan and Barbara Zimmermann and Patterson, {Brent R.}",

note = "Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2024 The Author(s). Ecology published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Ecological Society of America.",

year = "2025",

month = jan,

doi = "10.1002/ecy.4492",

language = "אנגלית",

volume = "106",

journal = "Ecology",

issn = "0012-9658",

publisher = "Wiley-Blackwell",

number = "1",

}

Benson, JF, Keiter, DA, Mahoney, PJ, Allen, BL, Allen, L, Álvares, F, Anderson, ML, Barber-Meyer, SM, Barocas, A, Beasley, JC, Behrendorff, L, Belant, JL, Beyer, DE, Boitani, L, Borg, BL, Boutin, S, Boydston, EE, Brown, JL, Bump, JK, Cepek, JD, Chamberlain, MJ, Chenaux-Ibrahim, YM, Cherry, SG, Ćirović, D, Ciucci, P, Cluff, HD, Cooper, SM, Crooks, KR, Dupont, DLJ, Fisher, RN, Fortin, D, Gable, TD, García, E, Geffen, E, Gehrt, SD, Gillingham, M, Heard, DC, Hebblewhite, M, Hinton, JW, Homkes, AT, Howden, CG, Huber, D, Jackson, PJ, Joly, K, Kelly, A, Kelly, MJ, Kingdon, KA, Kulkarni, A, Kusak, J, Kuzyk, GW, Lake, BC, Llaneza, L, López-Bao, JV, MacNulty, DR, McLaren, AAD, McLoughlin, PD, Merrill, EH, Mills, KJ, Mitchell, N, Moore, SA, Mumma, MA, Murray, MH, Musiani, M, Nakamura, M, Neilson, EW, Neufeld, LM, Newsome, TM, Oakleaf, JK, Palacios, V, Perdicas, MM, Perry, T, Petroelje, TR, Piper, CB, Prokopenko, CM, Prugh, LR, Riley, SPD, Rio-Maior, H, Roffler, GH, Rollins, D, Sand, H, Schmiegelow, FKA, Seip, DR, Sorum, MS, St. Clair, CC, Steenweg, R, Strohbach, MW, Tatler, J, Thaker, M, Thompson, CA, Turner, JW, Vanak, AT, Vander Wal, E, Wabakken, P, Walter, SE, Webster, SC, Wheeldon, TJ, Wikenros, C, Windels, SK, Young, JK, Zabihi-Seissan, S, Zimmermann, B & Patterson, BR 2025, 'Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups', Ecology, vol. 106, no. 1, e4492. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4492

TY - JOUR

T1 - Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups

AU - Benson, John F.

AU - Keiter, David A.

AU - Mahoney, Peter J.

AU - Allen, Benjamin L.

AU - Allen, Lee

AU - Álvares, Francisco

AU - Anderson, Morgan L.

AU - Barber-Meyer, Shannon M.

AU - Barocas, Adi

AU - Beasley, James C.

AU - Behrendorff, Linda

AU - Belant, Jerrold L.

AU - Beyer, Dean E.

AU - Boitani, Luigi

AU - Borg, Bridget L.

AU - Boutin, Stan

AU - Boydston, Erin E.

AU - Brown, Justin L.

AU - Bump, Joseph K.

AU - Cepek, Jonathon D.

AU - Chamberlain, Michael J.

AU - Chenaux-Ibrahim, Yvette M.

AU - Cherry, Seth G.

AU - Ćirović, Duško

AU - Ciucci, Paolo

AU - Cluff, H. Dean

AU - Cooper, Susan M.

AU - Crooks, Kevin R.

AU - Dupont, Daniel L.J.

AU - Fisher, Robert N.

AU - Fortin, Daniel

AU - Gable, Thomas D.

AU - García, Emilio

AU - Geffen, Eli

AU - Gehrt, Stanley D.

AU - Gillingham, Michael

AU - Heard, Douglas C.

AU - Hebblewhite, Mark

AU - Hinton, Joseph W.

AU - Homkes, Austin T.

AU - Howden, Chris G.

AU - Huber, Djuro

AU - Jackson, Pat J.

AU - Joly, Kyle

AU - Kelly, Allicia

AU - Kelly, Marcella J.

AU - Kingdon, Katrien A.

AU - Kulkarni, Abhijeet

AU - Kusak, Josip

AU - Kuzyk, Gerald W.

AU - Lake, Bryce C.

AU - Llaneza, Luis

AU - López-Bao, José Vicente

AU - MacNulty, Daniel R.

AU - McLaren, Ashley A.D.

AU - McLoughlin, Philip D.

AU - Merrill, Evelyn H.

AU - Mills, Kenneth J.

AU - Mitchell, Numi

AU - Moore, Seth A.

AU - Mumma, Matthew A.

AU - Murray, Maureen H.

AU - Musiani, Marco

AU - Nakamura, Mónia

AU - Neilson, Eric W.

AU - Neufeld, Lalenia M.

AU - Newsome, Thomas M.

AU - Oakleaf, John K.

AU - Palacios, Vicente

AU - Perdicas, Marlo M.

AU - Perry, Thomas

AU - Petroelje, Tyler R.

AU - Piper, Cyrenea B.

AU - Prokopenko, Christina M.

AU - Prugh, Laura R.

AU - Riley, Seth P.D.

AU - Rio-Maior, Helena

AU - Roffler, Gretchen H.

AU - Rollins, Dale

AU - Sand, Håkan

AU - Schmiegelow, Fiona K.A.

AU - Seip, Dale R.

AU - Sorum, Mathew S.

AU - St. Clair, Colleen C.

AU - Steenweg, Robin

AU - Strohbach, Michael W.

AU - Tatler, Jack

AU - Thaker, Maria

AU - Thompson, Connor A.

AU - Turner, Julie W.

AU - Vanak, Abi T.

AU - Vander Wal, Eric

AU - Wabakken, Petter

AU - Walter, Scott E.

AU - Webster, Sarah C.

AU - Wheeldon, Tyler J.

AU - Wikenros, Camilla

AU - Windels, Steve K.

AU - Young, Julie K.

AU - Zabihi-Seissan, Sana

AU - Zimmermann, Barbara

AU - Patterson, Brent R.

PY - 2025/1

Y1 - 2025/1

N2 - Animals within social groups respond to costs and benefits of sociality by adjusting the proportion of time they spend in close proximity to other individuals in the group (cohesion). Variation in cohesion between individuals, in turn, shapes important group-level processes such as subgroup formation and fission–fusion dynamics. Although critical to animal sociality, a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing cohesion remains a gap in our knowledge of cooperative behavior in animals. We tracked 574 individuals from six species within the genus Canis in 15 countries on four continents with GPS telemetry to estimate the time that pairs of individuals within social groups spent in close proximity and test hypotheses regarding drivers of cohesion. Pairs of social canids (Canis spp.) varied widely in the proportion of time they spent together (5%–100%) during seasonal monitoring periods relative to both intrinsic characteristics and environmental conditions. The majority of our data came from three species of wolves (gray wolves, eastern wolves, and red wolves) and coyotes. For these species, cohesion within social groups was greatest between breeding pairs and varied seasonally as the nature of cooperative activities changed relative to annual life history patterns. Across species, wolves were more cohesive than coyotes. For wolves, pairs were less cohesive in larger groups, and when suitable, small prey was present reflecting the constraints of food resources and intragroup competition on social associations. Pair cohesion in wolves declined with increased anthropogenic modification of the landscape and greater climatic variability, underscoring challenges for conserving social top predators in a changing world. We show that pairwise cohesion in social groups varies strongly both within and across Canis species, as individuals respond to changing ecological context defined by resources, competition, and anthropogenic disturbance. Our work highlights that cohesion is a highly plastic component of animal sociality that holds significant promise for elucidating ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying cooperative behavior.

AB - Animals within social groups respond to costs and benefits of sociality by adjusting the proportion of time they spend in close proximity to other individuals in the group (cohesion). Variation in cohesion between individuals, in turn, shapes important group-level processes such as subgroup formation and fission–fusion dynamics. Although critical to animal sociality, a comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing cohesion remains a gap in our knowledge of cooperative behavior in animals. We tracked 574 individuals from six species within the genus Canis in 15 countries on four continents with GPS telemetry to estimate the time that pairs of individuals within social groups spent in close proximity and test hypotheses regarding drivers of cohesion. Pairs of social canids (Canis spp.) varied widely in the proportion of time they spent together (5%–100%) during seasonal monitoring periods relative to both intrinsic characteristics and environmental conditions. The majority of our data came from three species of wolves (gray wolves, eastern wolves, and red wolves) and coyotes. For these species, cohesion within social groups was greatest between breeding pairs and varied seasonally as the nature of cooperative activities changed relative to annual life history patterns. Across species, wolves were more cohesive than coyotes. For wolves, pairs were less cohesive in larger groups, and when suitable, small prey was present reflecting the constraints of food resources and intragroup competition on social associations. Pair cohesion in wolves declined with increased anthropogenic modification of the landscape and greater climatic variability, underscoring challenges for conserving social top predators in a changing world. We show that pairwise cohesion in social groups varies strongly both within and across Canis species, as individuals respond to changing ecological context defined by resources, competition, and anthropogenic disturbance. Our work highlights that cohesion is a highly plastic component of animal sociality that holds significant promise for elucidating ecological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying cooperative behavior.

KW - Canis

KW - animal sociality

KW - cohesion

KW - cooperative behavior

KW - coyotes

KW - group size

KW - human footprint

KW - wolves

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85211461446&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1002/ecy.4492

DO - 10.1002/ecy.4492

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C2 - 39663892

AN - SCOPUS:85211461446

SN - 0012-9658

VL - 106

JO - Ecology

JF - Ecology

IS - 1

M1 - e4492

ER -

Intrinsic and environmental drivers of pairwise cohesion in wild Canis social groups

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